Medieval rhetoric is many things to many people. It is a complex and sometimes contradictory study. Most of the study and teaching of the structure of medieval rhetoric was based on inadequate and missing classical precepts and truths about rhetoric. As modern rhetoricians, we can see this phenomenon; however, the students of what we would call medieval rhetoric did not have that privilege. The years in which medieval rhetoric was taught and practiced extended from approximately the Fall of the Roman Empire in the late 5th century to the uncovering of the complete work of Quintillian in the late 15th century. Because of this long, 1,000-year period, medieval rhetoric slowly developed and was shaped and reshaped by different men trying to interpret the works of the ancients. 

This paper attempts to analyze three medieval writers and their work in light of what we know about medieval rhetoric. The type of writings I will analyze will be a commentary on some aspect of medieval life that these authors felt compelled to write. I will be looking at how the genres of medieval rhetoric possibly influenced their writing. Because of having studied the movements of the different genres that constitute medieval rhetoric, I will be able to identify how these different genres might have affected the commentaries I will be analyzing. More specifically in this paper, I would like to explore what it meant to be an effective medieval writer in view of the rhetoric practiced during this period. 

The three individuals I have chosen to compare and contrast were all visionaries and have authored commentaries for and about their times. The first was the quintessential medieval writer and poet, Dante Alighieri. The second writer was Christine de Pisan, considered to be the first professional woman writer. And, the third was the English mystic, Margery Kempe. Ultimately, I will attempt to establish and define what it meant to be an effective writer and rhetorician of the Middle Ages. 

First of all, I must define the word effective for the context of this paper. An effective medieval rhetorician would be able to know how to produce an intended effect through the use of well-chosen rhetorical devices. Also, the writer might derive personal as well as professional satisfaction and recognition. One would also be able to analyze and study the writer's work as typical or exemplary medieval rhetoric and identify certain rhetorical moves, if it were an effective piece of medieval writing. 

Rhetoricians are particularly adept in identifying the modes of discourse that are most effective for their goal. Each one of these writers is a rhetorician in the modern sense of the word and each person had a goal. They produced work to satisfy a specific goal and we can identify obvious rhetorical conventions in their writing. However, we have the luxury of taking the historical perspective of their writing and seeing their rhetorical moves and how these moves furthered their careers, or did not. And with this perspective, we can fit and help shape new notions about what it means to be an effective rhetorician. However, what I will attempt to do is place these works in the spirit of their own times to examine their rhetorical structure and possible effectiveness within that period of time. This type of analysis is important to us as rhetoricians in the contemporary sense of the word. As modern professional writers, we need to understand the rhetorical aspects and conventions of the pieces we write, so that we may choose to adhere to or depart from them. Our critics do not have the luxury of an historical perspective to judge whether or not our writing is effective or useful, whether these writings are poetry, quarterly reports, memos or an academic paper. 

DANTE ALIGHIERI 

First, I would like to introduce the writers before we dissect their work, as it is important to understand who they are in an historical sense. Dante Alighieri is not often mentioned as a medieval rhetor, but I would argue that indeed he was. Not only was he a prolific writer of literature, he was an engaged social and political commentator. I believe he used writing in order to communicate his ideas about how society should operate, as evidenced in the commentaries he produced while in exile from Florence. From my readings about Dante, it seems that he used language in the hope of engaging, motivating and changing the people in his world. Dante's world was very active and in the end, tumultuous. He was born in 1295 in one of the most flourishing cities of the Middle Ages, Florence. He lived and wrote during the ripening of the Middle Ages. His father was a small-businessman with noble connections. As the son of a merchant, he enjoyed a life of moderate wealth and security and high social standing. This wealth afforded Dante a classical, well-rounded education including not only the study of literature, but of painting and music. Dante experienced a rich social life due to his connections and interests and is known having served two times on the battlefield. 

Dante entered his writing career with his first work, Vita Nuova. This work is a self-psychologizing, critical exposition of his sonnets. We are all aware of his major work The Divine Comedy but he also wrote political and social commentaries. Dante had three major influences in his life and, thus his writing. The first was his love for Beatrice - a girl he met when he was nine and she was eight. The second major event in his life was his political exile from his beloved city, Florence. And third was the collapse of his dream of the ideal empire where man would do man's business and a non-corrupt papacy would do the business of heaven (Chubb 17). We know that Dante sought to change the world and shape these ideals through language. I would argue that he knew how to argue these points; he knew the people to address and the way in which to address them to bring about the change. This is ultimately the role of a rhetorician engaged in his language and writing. I do not propose the concept of Dante as rhetorician to diminish his importance as a writer of fine, western literature. I do want to point out how perhaps his education and study of language, as well as engaging in practices of exploring language, helped to shape him as an effective rhetorician. I see him as the quintessential medieval writer and as a model for comparing other writers of medieval commentaries and treatises. 

CHRISTINE DE PIZAN 

The next writer I would like to introduce is Christine de Pizan. Christine is known as the first professional woman writer (Redfern 74). She was born in 1365 in Venice, Italy, almost 100 years after Dante. Her father, Tommaso di Benvenuto da Pizzano, was a very well-educated man who worked as a municipal counselor. When Christine was age two or three, Charles V of France requested that her father, Tommaso, come to his court to be the court astrologer. Knowing a good opportunity when he saw it, the entire family moved to France. Because of her father's work at the court of Charles V, Christine was able to have access to and thus benefit from a classical education, an almost non-existent phenomenon for women of the Middle Ages. Her father encouraged her education while her mother was very resistant to it. Tommaso lost favor at court after the death of Charles V and died soon after in 1385. Several years before her father passed away, Christine married a man ten years her senior, Etienne de Casteel. Etienne encouraged Christine's studies and the marriage was said to be exceptionally happy. However, in 1389, Etienne died a young man, the victim of one of the many epidemics of the late Middle Ages. Christine was therefore widowed at age twenty-five with three children and a widowed mother to support. She had no inheritance from her father or husband. Later, she would write about this predicament and plead to women about the importance of being involved in their husbands' financial affairs. 

In the midst of her personal and economic crisis, Christine turned to writing as a form of solace and income. Because of her connections at court and her ability to write rich poetry, she was commissioned by nobles to write poetry for special occasions and people. Christine was also involved in the publication aspect of writing in the Middle Ages. She worked as a copyist and became friends with people in that art and industry. She would know on whom to call when it came time to illuminate and publish her own books. 

Christine also used language to obtain certain goals. She used it to express her educated ideas about women and their place in society. As a poet, she also used language to create beautiful tributes to her husband and the people she encountered. Her days at court and her ability to articulate her educated mind provided an entrée into the world of writing. Christine served as a voice for many silenced women. Ultimately, Christine was a rhetorician, using language to achieve a certain end. "Christine's growth as a rhetorician may have begun with the realization that her gender would cause her authority as a writer of serious prose to be called into question. Certainly she struggled to develop a style and ethos that would support a strong female perspective" (Redfern 78). Christine knew the rhetorical moves to make in her writing to achieve communication of her message. I would like to think she fooled the men of her time at their own game. Another interesting point is that, like Dante, she departed from the use of Latin and chose to use the vernacular of the French court in her writings (Redfern 78). 

MARGERY KEMPE 

Margery Kempe was a contemporary of Christine de Pizan. However, Margery is quite a different "creature" than Christine. Margery Brunham Kempe of Lynn was born in Norfolk England in 1373, just a few short years after Christine. Their life experience would prove to be very different, though. Her family was a prominent one in the cosmopolitan town of Lynn. She was married by age twenty to a burgess and eventually had fourteen children. She left her family to answer God's call to weep and to share her "gift of tears" with Christians throughout England, continental Europe and the Holy Land. Margery did not begin her writing endeavors until she was an old woman after years of travel and experience with sharing her "gift" and proclaiming the Word of God (Glenn 53). Margery was illiterate, though, and dictated her Book to scribes who were mainly priests. Her illiteracy was not uncommon or to be looked down upon. Her life consisted of her religious experiences and taking care of her family. Her rhetoric is very experiential and her own and only now, four hundred years later are we seeing how she created her work. She is the first woman to compose her life story in the English language. This fact is very impressive; however, her work was not discovered until 1934 (Glenn 55). Margery's book is truly a unique piece of writing. It is a poignant attempt at forging new rhetorical techniques in the genre of autobiography. "No English writer up until that time had committed to writing such an intimate, revealing and human account of life and thoughts" (Glenn 56). God inspired her dictation to the scribes and she would not compose until she felt it was the correct time. Priests who were moved by her gifts often urged her to tell her stories and have them written down. 

Margery used language to justify her life in service to God. I am not suggesting she had her story written down in order to gain heavenly acceptance. However, I do believe she used her words to inspire others, mainly women, to validate her experiences and to praise her God. She wasn't concerned with her acceptance as a professional writer, nor did she receive any recognition for her book, except negative, and these factors influence her rhetoric. We can analyze her rhetoric today, from a modern view of rhetoric. We can see the unique qualities of her work as she recounts her mystical experiences with Christ and Mary. She is an excellent example of someone who is departing from the normal, effective rhetorical techniques of her day. Actually, because she was illiterate, she may not have even been aware of these departures. The work of Margery Kempe is important to contrast against the work of Christine de Pizan not to show that one person is better than the other, but to witness the incredible differences. I believe these differences in their lives manifested themselves in their writings. The differences speak volumes about the cultivation of one's writing and rhetoric, using models of writing and the question of education. 

MEDIEVAL RHETORIC 

Let us step back a bit and look at the genres of medieval rhetoric. Although I will not be dissecting the grammar used in each piece, for instance, as they are all written in different languages, I will be drawing from what I know about these genres and how they could have influenced the more applied writing of a commentary. According to James J. Murphy, there are three identifiable medieval rhetorical genres. The first one is Preceptive Grammar or the Art of Verse-Writing. The second genre is that of Letter-Writing. And the third rhetorical genre is Sermon-Writing. Preceptive Grammar is probably the most scattered and difficult of the three genres to understand. Largely this is due to the fact that most of the philosophies and treatises written about grammar were based on fragmented pieces of Greco-Roman rhetoric. The grammarians of the Middle Ages did establish modes of thinking about and teaching grammar based on precepts of poetry and language. Grammar was more than a preliminary study of language to them. A student of medieval Latin grammar was required to study syntax, metrics, rhythmics, modes of signification, arrangements, and parts of discourse. Because of the difficulty in fully understanding the use of grammar, this art went from the preceptive form to speculative. I feel the grammarians of this period tried to deduce the study of language so much that it could not support itself on the already shaky ground of the fragmented, Greco-Roman writings on rhetoric. 

The next two genres are a little less problematic and more identifiable. The Art of Letter-Writing rose out of a specific societal and cultural need. We know that the culture of the Middle Ages was a very complex system of allegiances between lords and vassals, for example. These allegiances had contracts and semi-contracts. Immunities, agreements and homages were all textually noted. Certain forms were created and then expounded on. The Art of Letter-Writing amplified the salutation and exordium as true identifiers of this genre. The concepts of argumentation and conclusions were virtually ignored in the formation of these letters. 

The last rhetorical genre is the Art of Preaching or Sermon-Writing. This was not a new method of communicating as it was first established by God, Himself, as manifested in the Sermon on the Mount, and then used throughout the Judeo-Christian world for centuries to come. There were only three treatises written before the 12th and 13th centuries, one of which was St. Augustine's, De doctrina Christiana (426AD). Around the time of the Renaissance of the 12th Century, we see an explosion into the study of the rhetoric of sermon writing. Finally, the most important piece written during this time, concerning this genre, was Robert of Basevorn's Forma praedicandi (1322AD). It is suspected that the rise of the university in the 12th Century Renaissance had much to do with revitalizing this genre. Ultimately, I believe that the rhetorical genres of this time reveal the difficult tensions between the Christian church, society and the study of rhetoric. 

The works I have chosen to compare and contrast are not examples of any of these genres. This makes me aware of the fact that perhaps the genres as noted by James J. Murphy were not the only genres present, as evidenced by the autobiographical work of Margery Kempe and the illuminations of the medieval manuscripts, for example. However, I suppose that is another study to attempt for the future: identifying and establishing other rhetorical genres. Another important note is that all of the pieces were written in the vernacular language: one in Italian, one in French, and the other in English. Also, all of these pieces span the late Middle Ages. The writings I have chosen are De monarchia (Concerning the Monarchy) by Dante, Book One, Chapter One; The Book of the City of Ladies by Christine de Pizan, Book One, Chapter One; and, The Book of Margery Kempe, Book One, Chapter One. 

THE ANALYSIS 
     De monarchia  
De monarchia was written in 1312 or 1313, during Dante's exile from Florence. He was growing increasingly concerned about the role of church and state and how they should function together. He wrote this treatise to establish his opinion about the matter. It is divided into three books which address the role of the monarchy. From a cursory look at the commentary, we can see many obvious references to and quotes from the ancient philosophers and rhetoricians such as Aristotle and Cicero. Also, within the mix of Dante's argument are references to the Church fathers, such as St. Augustine and Thomas Aquinas, and quotes from the Bible, Old and New Testaments. A reader of this commentary would know that the author was probably classically educated and well-versed in the writings of the Church. He bases his argument on quotes from such sources as a way of lending credibility and furthering his argument. 

A closer look at one specific section of the De monarchia, primarily Book One, Chapter One, shows these rhetorical moves more precisely. First of all, this chapter explains his motives and purpose in writing. The audience is made aware of the direction and need of the commentary. Another rhetorical device that we can identify is in how Dante refers to the "Higher Nature" of man in the first paragraph. As Chubb states, "The Middle Ages deferred to authority - mainly the authority of what had already been written or said. A quotation was more effective than an original statement" (659). Dante represents this medieval rhetorical convention again when he states in the first chapter, "the toil of those who have gone before." Also, within the very first chapter, we can see references to Aristotle and Cicero. He does not actually quote them, but he establishes what they have written about and spoken about and how he would never attempt to do what has been done by these great thinkers. Again, we see the Christian influence in the final sentence of this chapter. He appeals to the "light of the giver of strength." I assume he is referring to the strength of God. 

Ultimately with this commentary, Dante is trying to forge new territory in how medieval minds should think about the monarch. He wishes to do something different with this topic. We have seen how he does this by defering to authority, but we also see another important rhetorical device. Dante poses questions to form his argument. He comes at the argument and reveals his opinions in first stating questions and then answering them. There is a sort of dialogue that is established. This is a very effective rhetorical device as it is a more subtle and apt method of winning the agreement of the intended audience.  

     The Book of the City of Ladies 
In Christine de Pizan's, Book of the City of Ladies, we see many of the same rhetorical devices that Dante used in his commentary. We know that Christine was familiar with and influenced by Dante as revealed in the structure and style of her poem Road of Long Study (Redfern 78). So, I am assuming that he influenced her in other ways and that she took his lead in how he presented his argument in forging new ground. The Book of the City of Ladies, written in 1405, was her fourth book. In this book she explores the role of women and addresses some questions and misconceptions that men and, unfortunately, women have about the feminine sex. Since this is a sensitive subject for discussion in the Middle Ages, Christine is pristinely careful with the way in which she sets up and explores her argument. 

Her argument is presented in the first chapter of her book as well; however, she dances up, slowly and gracefully, to the purpose. Her question comes from her reading of Matheolus and the question of women. The Quarrel of the Romance of the Rose was an important topic in late medieval, educated circles. Christine engages in it fully to give women the voice that they deserve. In her book, her language is so polite and genteel. When speaking of the debate over women, she states that it is "not very pleasant for people who do not enjoy lies." She says that these people have a "lack of integrity in diction and theme." It is here that she is attacking their use of language, as opposed to their person. 

Christine also tries to appeal to both men and women. To appeal to men, she refers to the great minds of her day, as well as ancient Greece and Rome. To appeal to the women and men, she tells of her association with "princesses, great ladies, and women of middle and lower classes." Dante does not use such devices. He only defers to authority. His need to win over men and women is not as important for him perhaps, as it is for Christine. Because of the amount of work she must do in order to be accepted, we do not see her directly ask the questions concerning the role of women until the second part of the first part Chapter One (I. 1. 1.). Finally, in the second part of Chapter One (1.2. 1), we see her invoking the allegorical conversation with Lady Reason, Lady Rectitude and Lady Justice. It is important to note that she introduces Lady Reason first in the book. Reason helps to establish her as a learned and logical woman of lettres. In her dialogue with Lady Reason, we can see how she, yet again, attempts to establish herself as a woman of lettres, by acknowledging and deferring to the great philosophers and thinkers of her time, such as Aristotle, Plato, and St. Augustine. We take for granted her references to these individuals. But it was very unique for a woman to be able to articulate and discuss such subjects so well. 

Also, like Dante, Christine is forging new ground with this book. Just as modern rhetoricians and compositionists such as Cheryl Glenn, Andrea Lunsford, and many other women are attempting to "regender" the western rhetorical tradition, so too is Christine trying to rewrite history in an attempt to include the important and neglected contributions of women up until her time. That is the purpose of The Book of the City of Ladies. I believe she attains her goal within the three books of The City of Ladies. Again, the use of three books is another rhetorical device that Christine and Dante share in their commentaries. It seems that medieval scholars liked to be able to explore their topics in a balanced set of three, probably because of the influence of the Christian Trinity. Christian thought permeated every aspect of medieval thought and life. 

Finally, Christine's language in articulating her feelings is very well-chosen. It is obvious that she feels very strongly about her subject. The ways in which she expresses her feelings are very detailed and cogent, yet poignant. She does not give in to unnecessary language that might reveal her real rage of being misunderstood as a woman. She adept at crafting the vernacular French so that she does not offend, but engage. This is very different from The Book of Margery Kempe.  

     The Book 
One of the first things you realize as you read the first chapter of Margery's Book is the way she uses very descriptive language. Of course, these are the dictated words of the scribes her penned her book, yet we can still see how she truthfully describes herself and her experiences. This book is a vivid and unique account of these experiences. Ultimately, the goal of the book is not to persuade or argue but to give evidence of her unique rhetoric stems from her purpose of the book. Like Christine, Margery was inspired to put in to words her life story. However, unlike Christine, she does not appeal to the mass public. It seems that her writing is for an entirely different audience altogether, perhaps other women mystics or individuals of the church. She does refer to a higher power, God, in the first chapter as the others do. But we do not see evidence of her referring to any philosophers or rhetoricians of the Greco-Roman world, as our other medieval writers have done. 

Another unique rhetorical device in this first chapter is the interjection of a lesson about Christ. "When people think he is far away from them he is very near through his grace." Although both Dante and Christine have a specific purpose for changing the minds of other people, Margery's lesson is more like a moral. It is comforting and as the reader we know that it must be true because of her apparent closeness to God as evidenced by her mystical encounters with Him. 

Unlike Christine’s and Dante's commentaries, Margery's book is not linear nor is it organized as a medieval writer might organize a commentary. It is "cyclical and associational" (Glenn 56). This is very much a departure from what would be considered acceptable in medieval writing. Glenn speaks about how Margery forged a new territory of authorship and rhetorical space and this is true, from an historical perspective. But in light of what we have discussed about being an effective rhetor of the Middle Ages, her writing is lacking. The fact that she did not adhere, as a conscious choice, to the rhetorical conventions of her age meant that her writing was dismissed and even lost for hundreds of years. 

CONCLUSIONS 

From my analysis of the three writings, I have identified at least four effective, medieval rhetorical devices. These devices probably came from the study of language and rhetoric although as of yet, we can not pinpoint exactly from which genre these devices came. We can speculate on how the medieval genres of grammar, letter-writing, and sermon-writing might have influenced these rhetorical devices. The following are the devices that seem obvious to me after a close reading of Dante, Christine and Margery's commentaries.  

• Balance of Three Subjects or Books
• Forging New Ground
• The Art of Posing Questions as to Establish a Dialogue
• Deferring to the Authority of the Ancients or God

The writings of Margery do not allow this type of accessibility. This is why, I believe, her writings were lost for hundreds of years. Only now can we see the bold attempts at creating a rhetorical space through composition, autobiography and orality. Glenn describes Margery's Book as a voyage into "female spirituality, selfhood and authorship" (Glenn 56). She also states the Margery, through her Book, "gave voice to a largely silent and unsung force, the voice of the uneducated woman" (Glenn 55). However, because Margery did not attempt to construct her writings in a way that would be acceptable to the medieval mind, she left these women still silent, for hundreds of years. Yet, we can see how education has influenced Margery as well. Her education was not of the university or the court, but of the church. Because of the type of impression this institution has made on her, her writings mimic the homiletic sermons. Margery attempts to reveal the power of God through her experiences and win people to follow Him (Glenn 58). However, I do not know how intentional this is. An effective rhetorician would make definite choices in forming their argument in order to persuade the listener or reader. It seems that Margery's rhetoric is no doubt there and bountiful; however, I would argue that she was not an effective, practicing rhetorician of the Middle Ages. 

IMPLICATIONS 

What does this all mean for the discipline of Professional Writing? If we are to be successful Professional Writers and thus, successful rhetoricians and compositionists, we must be able to understand the rhetorical conventions of writing. Educating oneself is an important means to that end. Understanding the theory behind the practice, allows us as writers to move in and out of different writing situations, successfully. Being able to identify the different rhetorical aspects of certain genres of writing and understanding the culture in which they were written allows us to be effective professional writers in our own time. We should heed the example of writers like Dante and Christine to achieve success in our present-day writing pursuits. However, there are times, such as with Margery's situation, where writing should serve different purposes of self-satisfaction or appealing to a higher need. As writers and rhetoricians, we need to see the difference between the two situations. 

Alighieri, Dante. "De monarchia." The Latin Works of Dante Alighieri. New York Greenwood 

Press, 1969 

Chubb, Thomas Caldecott. Dante and His World. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1966. 

De Pizan, Christine. The Book of the City of Ladies. New York: Persea Books, 1982. 

Glenn, Cheryl. "Reexamining The Book of Margery Kempe. " Reclaiming, Rhetorica: